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The life of a soldier in the 1860's was a arduous one. It meant many months away from home and loved ones, long hours of drill, a tent for a home, and many days spent marching on hot, dusty roads burdened with everything a man needed to be a soldier as well as baggage enough to make his life as comfortable as possible. There were long stretches of boredom in camp interspersed with moments of sheer terror experienced on the battlefield. To the thousands of young Americans who left home to fight for their cause, it was an experience none of them would ever forget. Every soldier wore a wool uniform, a belt set which included a cartridge box, cap box, bayonet and scabbard, a haversack for his rations, a canteen, and a blanket roll or knapsack which contained a wool blanket, a shelter half and perhaps a rubber blanket or poncho. Inside was a change of socks, writing paper, stamps and envelopes, ink and pen, razor, toothbrush, comb and other personal items. Most soldiers learned to travel light very quickly, discarding extra items that were of no use in the field. Confederate soldiers carried less items out of want more than need. Discarded equipment was usually difficult to replace and fresh clothing was difficult to be found for the average southerner until the Confederate quartermaster could initiate a constant flow of supplies.
For these civilians turned soldiers, it was very difficult getting used to the rigors and demands of army life. Most of them had been farmers for many years and were indifferent to the need to obey orders. Discipline was first and foremost a difficult concept to understand, especially in the beginning when the officer one had to salute may have been the hometown postmaster only a few weeks before. The uniforms were not quite as fancy as those worn by the hometown militias and soldiering did not always mean fighting. There were fatigue duties such as assignments to gather wood for cook fires. Metal fittings had to be polished, horses groomed and watered, fields had to be cleared for parades and drill, and there were water details for the cook house. Guard duty meant long hours pacing up and down a well-trod line, day or night, rain or shine, always on watch for a foe who might be lurking anywhere in the hostile countryside. A furlough was hard to come by as every man was needed in the field and few men had a chance to ever visit home.
 "Dog" tents set up with rifles and bayonets. (Hardtack and Coffee) |
Home in the field was a rectangular piece of canvas buttoned to another to form a small two-man tent, or dog tent as the soldiers called them. Soldiers joked that only a dog could crawl under it and stay dry from the rain. Every Union soldier was issued one for use during active campaign. The tent could be easily pitched for the evening by tying each end to a rifle stuck in the ground by the bayonet or stringing it up to fence rails. Confederates did not receive shelter tents though some southerners were issued a variation of the tent, which they pitched as a lean-to or shelter. As the war progressed it was very common for a Confederate camp to be filled with captured Union tents as well as captured blankets, canteens, and haversacks. Confederates especially prized the Union rubber blankets, which were not maufactured in the south.
Each man had to learn the marching drill, company and battalion drill, and pay attention to commands given in the field. The infantryman learned the Manual of Arms for the rifle-musket. Most were drilled in it so well that they could recite the steps of loading and priming for many years after the war. The soldiers drilled as squads and in company formations. After an hour of drill on that level, the regiment took to the field for regimental level drills and parades. Drill and military procedures were a part of the daily routine that every man eventually grew accustomed to.
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For the infantry, drums and bugles were used to announce daily activities from sunrise to sunset. Reveille was sounded to begin the day, followed by an assembly for morning roll call and breakfast call. Sick call was sounded soon after breakfast, followed by assemblies for guard duty, drill, or to begin the march. Drummers were also important on the march to keep the soldiers in step during parades and to call them to attention. In battle, drums were sometimes used to signal maneuvers and give signals for the ranks to load and fire their weapons. The artillery and cavalry relied solely on buglers who were as important in their roles as the drummers were to the infantry. When not playing for their respective regiments, the musicians were combined with regimental or brigade bands to play marching tunes or provide field music for parades, inspections, and reviews.
The armies camped out throughout the year until the winter months when they would establish winter camps. Log huts, large enough to accommodate several men, were constructed with mud-chinked walls and a roof made from tents or sawn boards. Most had wood bunks built inside as well as a small fireplace for warmth. These lasted only a few months and then it was back to the field and shelter in the smaller tents.
The
amount of baggage each man carried was different from man to man. The southern
soldier was highly regarded for traveling with a very light load basically
because he did not have the extra items available to him that the northern
soldier had. Southern uniforms were quite different from the northern uniforms,
consisting of a short-waisted jacket and trousers made of "jean" cloth- a blend
of wool and cotton threads which was very durable. Dyed by different methods,
the uniforms were a variation of greys and browns. Northern soldiers called
Confederates "butternuts" because of the tan-grey color of the uniforms. Vests
were also worn and were often made of jean material as well. Shirts and
undergarments were universally of cotton material and often sent to the soldiers
from home. Southern made shoes were often of very poor quality and difficult to
obtain. Northern uniforms were universally of better quality because of numerous
woolen mills throughout the north that could manufacture wool cloth. The blouse
and trousers were wool and dyed a dark blue until 1862 when the trouser color
was altered to a lighter shade of blue. The floppy-crowned forage cap, made of
wool broadcloth with a leather visor, was either loved or loathed, but
universally worn by most soldiers in the Army of the Potomac. Each soldier would
adorn his cap with brass letters of the regiment and company to which he
belonged. Beginning in 1863, corps badges were designed for the different
army corps and these were universally adopted for the top of the cap. Like their
Confederate counterparts, most Union soldiers disdained the itchy wool flannel
army shirt for cotton shirts and undergarments sent from home.
Leisure
time activities were similar in either army and much of that time was spent in
writing letters home. Soldiers were prolific letter writers and wrote at every
opportunity. It was the only way for them to communicate with loved ones and
inform the home folks of their condition and where they were. The arrival of
mail in camp was a cause for celebration no matter where the soldiers were, and
much grumbling occurred when the mail arrived late. The lucky soldiers who
received a letter from home often read and re-read the letters many times.
Packages from home contained baked goods, new socks or shirts, underwear, soap,
towels, combs, and toothbrushes- all items that were expensive for the soldiers
to purchase in the field. Sutlers followed each army and sold toiletry items,
canned fruit, pocketknives, and other supplementary items to the soldiers and
usually at exorbitant prices. A private's salary amounted to $16.00 per month in
1863, and those unfortunates who owed the sutler watched as most of their pay
was handed over to the greedy businessman on pay day.
Free time was also spent in card games, pitching horseshoes, or "team sports" such as the fledgling game of baseball, a game which rapidly gained favor amongst northern troops. Soldiers also played a form of football which often resulted in broken noses and fractured limbs. Holidays were celebrated in camp with feasts, foot races, horse racing, music, boxing matches, and other contests. Many soldiers kept pets including cats, squirrels, raccoons, and other wildlife. But by far the most popular of pets appears to have been dogs.
 Cooking over the campfire. (Hardtack and Coffee) |
"Hard crackers, hard crackers, come again no more!"
By far, food the soldiers received has been the source of more stories than any other aspect of army life. The Union soldier received a variety of edibles. The food issue, or ration, was usually meant to last three days while on active campaign and was based on the general staples of meat and bread. Meat usually came in the form of salted pork or, on rare occassions, fresh beef. Rations of pork or beef were boiled, broiled or fried over open campfires. Army bread was a flour biscuit called hardtack. Called "tooth-dullers", "worm castles", and "sheet iron crackers" by the soldiers, hardtack could be eaten plain though most men preferred to toast them over a fire, crumble them into soups, or crumble and fry them with their pork and bacon fat in a dish called skillygalee. Other food items included rice, peas, beans, dried fruit, potatoes, molasses, vinegar, and salt. Baked beans were a northern favorite when the time could be taken to prepare them and a cooking pot with a lid could be obtained. Coffee was a most desirable staple and some soldiers considered the issue of coffee and accompanying sugar more important than anything else. The coffee beans were given out green and unroasted, so it was up to the soldiers to roast and grind them. The task for this most desirable of beverages was worth every second as former soldier John Billings recalled: "What a Godsend it seemed to us at times! How often after being completely jaded by a night march... have I had a wash, if there was water to be had, made and drunk my pint or so of coffee and felt as fresh and invigorated as if just arisen from a night's sound sleep!"
Soldiers often grouped themselves into a "mess" to combine and share rations, often with one soldier selected as cook or split that duty with another. But while on active campaign, rations were usually prepared by each man to the individual's taste. It was considered important for the men to cook the meat ration as soon as it was issued, for it could be eaten cold if activity prevented cook fires. A common campaign dinner was salted pork sliced over hardtack with coffee boiled in tin cups that each man carried.
The southern soldier's diet was considerably different from his northern counterpart and usually in much less quantity. The average Confederate subsisted on bacon, cornmeal, molasses, peas, tobacco, vegetables and rice. They also received a coffee substitute which was not as desirable as the real coffee that northerners had. Trades of tobacco for coffee were quite common throughout the war when fighting was not underway. Other items for trade or barter included newspapers, sewing needles, buttons, and currency.
The
soldiers loved to sing and there were many favorites tunes that were popular in
both armies. A variety of instruments were available to musically minded
soldiers including guitars, banjos, flutes, and harmonicas. More industrious
soldiers fashioned string instruments such as fiddles out of wooden cigar boxes.
Regimental or brigade bands often played during the evening hours and there were
instances of army bands being heard to play favorite tunes for the opposition
when the armies were separated by a river or siege line. Some of the more
popular tunes for southerners were "Lorena", "Maryland My Maryland", and "The
Bonnie Blue Flag". Union soldiers had "The Battle Cry Of Freedom", "Battle Hymn
of the Republic", and "Tenting on the Old Campground" as favorites. The men of
both sides also enjoyed minstrel tunes such as "My Old Kentucky Home", "The
Arkansas Traveler", and "Dixie".
Religion was very important in the soldier's daily routine. Many of the men attended church services on a regular basis and some even carried small testaments with the rest of their baggage. Union and Confederate armies had numerous regimental and brigade chaplains. These loyal officers also acted as assistants in field hospitals comforting the sick and wounded, and writing letters home for those who could not write. Chaplains held field services for their respective units and most accompanied the soldiers as they marched onto the battlefield. Father William Corby, the chaplain of the Irish Brigade, is best remembered for his granting of unconditional absolution to the members of the brigade before they marched into battle in the Wheatfield on July 2nd. Father Corby was immensely popular with the men and in the post-war era became president of Notre Dame University.
Discipline
in the military was very strict. The Provost Marshal of the army was responsible
for enforcing military rules, but the regimental commanders were also given the
authority to dole out punishments for minor offenses. Petty offenses such as
shirking camp duty or not keeping equipment in good order were usually treated
with extra duties such as digging latrines, chopping wood, or standing extra
hours on guard duty. Insubordination, thievery, cowardice, or other offenses
were more serious and the guilty party was usually subjected to embarrassing
punishments such as carrying a log, standing on a barrel, or wearing a placard
announcing his crime. "Bucking and gagging" was also a common punishment; the
soldier's limbs were bound and he was gagged so he could not speak. In the
artillery, the guilty person might be tied to the spare wheel on the back of a
caisson. Desertion, spying, treachery, murder, or threats on an officer's life
were the most serious offenses to which the perpetrator was condemned to
military prison or shot by a firing squad. Crimes committed against civilians
were also punishable by the army and felons were executed by hanging before a
formation of soldiers.
Sickness and disease were the scourge of both armies and more men died of disease than in battle. Sanitation in the camps was very poor. Germs and the effect of bacteria had not yet been discovered, and medical science was quite primitive by today's standards. Morning sick call was played in camp and ailing soldiers trudged to the surgeon's tent where the "sawbones" examined the sick. Quinine or other stimulants were administered, including an elixir called "Blue Mass". Whiskey was universally given for most ailments as was brandy and other stimulants. Extremely ill soldiers were sent to brigade hospitals where most were further affected by disease. Thousands of men in both armies died without ever firing a shot in battle.
The singular purpose of the soldier was to fight a battle and win. There were a
variety of small arms used during the Civil War. The average infantryman carried a
muzzle-loading rifle-musket manufactured in American arsenals or one purchased
from foreign countries such as England. The bayonet was an important part of the
rifle and its steel presence on the muzzle of the weapon was very imposing. When
not in battle, the bayonet was a handy candle holder and useful in grinding
coffee beans. The typical rifle-musket weighed eight and one-half pounds and
fired a conical shaped bullet called the Minie Ball. Bullets were made of
very soft lead and caused horrible wounds which were difficult to heal. The
artillery was composed of both rifled and smoothbore cannon, each gun served by
a crew of fourteen men including the drivers. The role of the artillery was to
support the infantry while the infantry role was to either attack or defend,
depending on the circumstances. Both branches worked together to coordinate
their tactics on the field of battle.
Cavalrymen were armed with breech loading carbines, sabers, and pistols. Cavalry
was initially used for scouting purposes and to guard supply trains. The role of
mounted troops had expanded by the time of Gettysburg, with cavalry divisions
acting as skirmishers and fighting mounted and on foot in pitched battles such
as Brandy Station, Virginia on June 9, 1863. Other branches of the armies
included the signal corps, engineers, medical and hospital corps, as well as
supply organizations including the quartermasters.
The end of the war in 1865 brought a welcome peace, especially for the men who served as soldiers. Armies were disbanded and regiments mustered out of service. Former soldiers returned to the farms and stores they had left so long ago, but the memories of their service and old comrades did not disappear quite so rapidly. In the decade following the end of the Civil War, organizations of veterans of the North and South were formed. Northern veterans joined the Grand Army of the Republic and Confederate veterans enrolled in the United Confederate Veterans. For many years, G.A.R. posts and U.C.V. chapters met over reunion campfires retelling stories and recalling the friends who did not return. Many veterans wrote articles, stories, andfor the magazines of both organizations. The G.A.R. and U.C.V. held powerful influence in political circles from 1878 through the turn of the century, but their influence faded as veterans in congress retired and passed out of politics. The last hurrah for both organizations came at Gettysburg in 1913 when 54,000 veterans attended the 1913 Anniversary celebration and Grand Reunion, and both organizations formally joined in a singular purpose of national unification and peace. America's involvement in the Great War (World War I) four years later brought hundreds of aged "Yanks" and "Johnnies" out to march together in military parades for one last time before they quickly faded into the background as the nation's attention focused on her "doughboys" serving in Europe.
author: John Heiser
Historian, Gettysburg National Military Park
Want to read more about it? Check out these titles at your
local library!
Bell Irvin Wiley, The Life of Billy Yank, The Common Soldier of the Union,
Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1952 & 1978.
Bell Irvin Wiley, The Life of Johnny Reb, The Common Soldier of the
Confederacy, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 1943 & 1978
John D. Billings, Hardtack & Coffee or The Unwritten Story of Army Life,
Benchmark Publishing Corp., Glendale, NY, 1970 (reprint)
James V. Acker, Pres.