FORT ABERCROMBIE, D. T.
Hospital
1861 REGULATIONS
Hospital
sites to be selected for
55… An officer invested with a separate command is responsible for the discipline of the troops under his order, and for the good state of every thing entrusted to his charge. It is, therefore, his duty to see that the rules and regulations for the government of the troops are strictly enforced; and that suitable sites or positions are selected, by the senior medical office of the command, for the hospital or hospital tents.
to be inspected
469… There will be certain periodical inspections, to wit: Medical officers having charge of hospitals will make a thorough inspection of them every Sunday morning.
470… Besides these inspections, frequent visits will be made by the commanding officer, company, and medical officers, during the month, to the men's quarters, the hospital, guardhouse, &c
486…The hospital being at all times an object of particular interest, it will be critically and minutely inspected.
Surgeons
To give certificates of disability
223…Whenever a noncommissioned officer or soldier shall be incapable of performing his duties in consequence of wounds, disease, or infirmity, and recommended to be discharged, the senior Surgeon of the hospital, regiment, or post, shall furnish his captain with a certificate of disability, pursuant to Form 16, of the Medical Regulations, for his approval, or remark; which certificate of disability, with the descriptive certificate properly filled up, and signed by the captain will be forwarded by the commanding officer of the post, (with such remarks as he may deem requisite,) to the Adjutant-General, for final decision at General Headquarters.
To give certificates for pension
225…When a noncommissioned officer of soldier shall be recommended to be discharged in consequence of wounds or other injuries received while actually in the service of the United States, and in the line of his duty, and which disable him from obtaining his subsistence, his commanding officer shall certify the time, place, and manner, of receiving such wound or disability; if wounded in action, state the fact, and name the part wounded; if otherwise injured and disabled, describe the circumstances, the manner of receiving the injury, and the kind of duty in which the soldier was engaged at the time. And the senior Surgeon of the hospital, regiment, or post, upon obtaining sufficient evidence of the facts, shall furnish duplicate Certificates for Pension, agreeably to Form 17, Medical Regulations; which duplicate certificates and descriptive certificate annexed thereto, properly filled up and signed by the Captain, shall be transmitted by the commanding officer of the regiment or post, with such remarks as he may deem requisite, to the Adjutant-General, one of which shall be retained for the files of his office, and the other be sent to the Pension office.
To examine sick officers
242…No officer shall be permitted to ask for a leave of absence, or to quit his post or station, on account of sickness, unless a leave be professionally recommended by the senior medical officer present, who will fully set forth the case.
244…In cases where statements, required to be forwarded by the preceding paragraph, are not deemed sufficient to authorize the officer's absence, an experienced medical officer will be instructed to examine the party, and a report of the examination will be forwarded to the Adjutant-General; and whenever an officer shall remain so absent for one year, he shall be examined by one or more medical officers, and the case be specially laid before the President of the United States.
How arrested
299…To avoid the inconvenience resulting from the suspension of the functions of officers of the medical staff, it is recommended to officers in command, whenever charges are preferred against a Surgeon or Assistant Surgeon, to transmit the charges to the officer having authority to order a general court-martial for his trial; and not to put the Surgeon or Assistant Surgeon in arrest, until the court-martial ordered for his trial shall have been assembled.
Call, When to beat
370…The Surgeon's Call is to sound or beat at -O'clock, when the sick, able to go out, will be conducted to the hospital by the First Sergeants of companies, who will hand to the Surgeon a report of all the sick in the company, other than in hospital. The patients who cannot attend at the dispensary will be immediately after, if not before, visited by the Surgeon.
To inspect hospitals, &c.
469…There will be certain periodical inspections, to wit;
1. The commanders of regiments and posts, will make an inspection of their commands on the last day of every month.
2. Captains will inspect their companies every Sunday morning; and Lieutenants will inspect their squads every Wednesday morning.
3. Medical officers having charge of hospitals, will also make a thorough inspection of them every Sunday morning.
4. Inspection when troops are mustered for payment.470…Besides these inspections, frequent visits will be made by the commanding officer, company, and medical officers during the month, to the men's quarters, the hospital, guardhouse, &c.
To make out muster and payrolls of steward, &c.
493…The muster and payrolls of the stewards, ward-masters, and nurses, will be made out by the medical officer in charge of the hospital.
To be sent with guards
587…Whenever detachments are composed of 200 men or upwards, a Surgeon or Assistant Surgeon is to be sent with them. On particular duties, the attendance of a Surgeon or Assistant Surgeon may be requisite with smaller detachments. Detachments of cavalry of fifty or upwards must be attended by a Farrier.
704…For the accommodation of the sick and disabled, a wagon will be attached to the rear guard, when necessary and practicable; and a Surgeon will attend, to give assistance, and to see that no improper persons are suffered to avail themselves of the accommodation.
To inspect transports
718…The commanding officer of the troops or other officer charged with their embarkation, will order one or more medical officers to accompany the particular commanders who are to embark on board the several transports, for the purpose of making a most minute inspection of the respective vessels, before the troops are sent on board.
719…Each of these commanders will make a report of the inspection, signed by himself and the accompanying surgeon, to the officer who ordered the inspection.
Duties in transports
740…At morning and evening parades, the surgeon will examine the countenances, &c., of the men, to observe, in general, whether there be any appearance of disease in any of them.
741…The sick will, as far as practicable, be separated from the healthy men. On the first appearance of malignant contagion, a signal will be made for the hospital vessel, (if there be one in company,) and the diseased men removed to her; otherwise the surgeon will call all his resources into action to prevent the spread of the contagion; in which duty he will be aided by the commanding officer.
742…Hospital stores, or comforts, are no where more necessary than on board transports. A good supply ought to be taken on board of each, and strictly applied to their destination, to wit: the use of the sick and convalescent.
743…The surgeon will be careful to guard the men against costiveness on approaching a hot climate. In passing through the West Indies to the Mississippi or the coast of Mexico, for instance, and for some weeks after landing in those latitudes, great care will be required to prevent the men from eating green or bad fruit, as strangers would not be competent to judge of that article, and most kinds, after long voyages, being highly prejudicial.
Examining recruits
799…Surgeons will attend at the rendezvous at least twice a day, at such hours as the recruiting officer shall establish.
800…Surgeons will attend at the rendezvous at least twice a day, at such hours as the recruits, and suffer no man to pass who has not, at his examination, been stripped of all his clothes, in order to ascertain, as far as possible, that he has the perfect use of all his limbs; that he has no tumors, ulcerated legs, ruptures, nor chronic contagious affection, nor other infirmity, which may render him unfit for the active duties of the field, or be the means of introducing disease into the army: And it shall be their duty to ascertain, as far as practicable, whether the recruit is an habitual drunkard, or subject to convulsions of any kind, or has received any contusions or wounds in the head which might produce occasional insanity. With any of these defects, the man must be refused, as being unfit for service.
804…Every detachment ordered from a depot to any regiment or post, shall immediately preceding its departure, be critically inspected by the superintendent or commanding officer, and Surgeon; and, when necessary, a Board if Inspectors will be convened.
805…Every detachment of recruits received at a military post or station shall be carefully inspected by the commanding officer and Surgeon, on the third day after its arrival; and if, on such inspection, any recruit, in their opinion, be unsound or otherwise defective, in such degree as to disqualify him for the duties of a soldier, then a Board of Inspectors will be assembled to examine into, and report on the case. [See pars. 807,808,809,810]
806…In all cases of rejection, the reasons therefore will be stated in a special report to be made by the board, which, together with the Surgeon's certificate of disability for service, will be forwarded to the Adjutant-General, by the superintendent or commandant of the post, for decision at General Headquarters. If the recommendation of the board for the discharge of the recruit be approved, the authority therefore will be endorsed on the certificates, which will be sent back to be filled up and signed by the commanding officer, who will return the same to the Adjutant-General's office. In all such cases the commanding officer will cause the articles of clothing, which may have been issued to the recruit, to be endorsed on the certificate of disability.
807…Boards of Inspectors for the examination of recruits will be composed of the three senior officers present on duty in the line, and senior medical officer of the army present; and when organized at the principal depot, the superintendent, or in his absence, the commanding officer, will preside: if at a military post, the commanding officer will preside at the board of inspection.
808…Whenever a recruit is rejected, the board will report whether, in its opinion, the disability, or other cause of rejection, existed or originated before or after the date of his enlistment; and if the former, whether with due care and proper examination, such disability might not, in its opinion, have been discovered by the recruiting officer and examining Surgeon, at the time the recruit enlisted.
809…When a recruit is rejected and discharged in consequence of the non-observance of the recruiting regulations by the recruiting officer and examining Surgeon, they shall be charged with the amount of clothing which the recruit, so rejected, may have received from the public, to be deducted out of the pay and emoluments of such officers.
810…As the decision of Boards of Inspectors may often involve the recruiting officers in pecuniary liabilities, by their being required to refund to the United States the amount of any loss occasioned by the discharge of a rejected recruit, the board will, in all cases, make the proper discriminations, and always state whether the want of due examination, at the time of enlistment, be attributable to the recruiting officer or examining Surgeon, or to both; and, as far as may be practicable, to state the amount with which either ought, in its opinion, to be chargeable.
To select hospital stewards
864…With the approbation of the commanding officer of a post, or of any troops, a noncommissioned officer or private, will be selected by the senior medical officer present on duty, to act as steward of the hospital. When a suitable hospital steward cannot be obtained from the command, the recruiting officer of the station will, on application of the post Surgeon to the commanding officer, be directed to enlist the person who may be recommended by the medical officer as qualified for such extra duty. The recruit so enlisted, will be assigned to some company, and be mustered, &c., in the same manner as other enlisted soldiers.
OVERVIEW
During the 1860s, the practice of medicine on the frontier was primitive and doctors were not normally available to treat sick or injured settlers. The settlers usually had to depend upon themselves or their neighbors for any assistance in a medical emergency. The soldiers who were stationed at the forts on the frontier were more fortunate than the emigrants and settlers because medical treatment was available from and dispensed by the Post Surgeon.
In 1821, the Medical Department of the Army was reorganized and consisted of one surgeon general, eight regimental surgeons and forty-five assistant surgeons. An assistant surgeon was normally assigned to a small permanent military installation (i.e. Fort Abercrombie), and a surgeon was stationed at Regimental Headquarters. Any person who desired an appointment as a medical officer was required to apply to the Secretary of War, through the Surgeon General, and to have a license to practice from a respectable medical association or college. Before receiving an appointment a candidate was also required to pass an examination which was conducted by a board of three medical officers who were assigned by the Surgeon General. The license and examination enabled the army to secure medical officers who had a formal medical education that was supplemented with practical experience. An assistant surgeon received fifty-two dollars per month and was allowed one servant and the same allowance of fuel, quarters, etc. as a captain. The Post Surgeon was authorized to treat civilian patients and keep the fees which his private practice generated as a supplement to his military income.
In addition to providing medical treatment to the sick, the Post Surgeon was responsible for the operation of the hospital, examined recruits, maintained the Meteorological Register, and furnished pension certificates. The Meteorological Register was a book in which the daily weather information (temperature, wind direction and force, amount of rain or snow, etc.) was recorded. At small forts, the Post Surgeon's medical staff consisted of at least one hospital steward and a cook who were both enlisted soldiers.
Some of the prevalent diseases at Fort Abercrombie were malarial fevers, respiratory infections, pneumonia, dysentery, alcoholism and venereal disease. There were periodic epidemics of influenza and catarrh (the common cold), but none of cholera. Cultivated and wild fruits, vegetables, and herbs were traditionally used for their medicinal value by doctors and settlers. Wild onions, celery and watercress were used to prevent and cure scurvy (Vitamin C deficiency), which was common among the settlers and soldiers on the frontier.
Medical knowledge and practices of the 1860s was very primitive compared to that of the 20th century. Normally a soldier had to be very sick or severely injured before he was admitted to the hospital. The inducement of bleeding and the belief that an abundant flow of pus are two examples of accepted 19th century medical procedures which were often fatal. If a soldier survived an operation, his chances of recovery were minimal because aseptic surgical techniques and equipment sterilization were not developed until after the Civil War.
Soldiers in the hospital were given a daily ration of food that would be supplied by the hospital. Under the regular system of supplying provisions to the sick men in the hospital, the rations were paid for jointly by the Subsistence and Medical Departments. Often the sick were unable to eat their rations of bread and pork, and the commissary was unable to furnish fowl, mutton, eggs, milk, and butter his diet required. These were purchased from the hospital fund. A commissary was authorized, on the requisition of a medical officer to buy the following from the fund:
- Food, solid or fluid, to be used for the diet of the sick, and not furnished by the Subsistence Department or Medical Department.
- Articles to be used in either the preparation or serving of the food, embracing principally cooking utensils and table furniture, and not furnished by the Quartermaster's Department or Medical Department.
- Gas, oil, and other means of illumination, to be used instead of candles, which are part of the soldier's ration.
Barley, sage, chocolate, tea, wine, brandy, etc., which were in the hospital stores and were intended for a six to twelve month's supply frequently were exhausted in half the time.
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Tools that would be used at the hospital would include the following.
THE POST SURGEON
The post surgeon was more then just the doctor for the post. He was a valued advisor to the post commander - responsible for keeping the post and its inhabitants as healthy and fit for duty as possible. He was responsible for examining new recruits to judge their state of health and had very strict guidelines for rejecting men. Men could be rejected if they had missing fingers or toes, or if their sight or hearing was impaired. They were rejected if they had what was felt to be contagious skin infections. Special attention was given to trying to keep out habitual drunkards. Bad breath is also cited as being a reason for rejection-not a bad idea considering that the bunks were built for two and also noting that bad breath can denote chronic pulmonary conditions, chronic tonsillitis, or chronic alcoholism.
The surgeon would have sick call in the morning and great care was made to keep any malingering to a minimum. The sickest of the men would be placed in the hospital for intensive therapy, while the less sick would simply be confined to the barracks, while treated.
The post surgeon or regimental surgeon was also the scientist. He was responsible for recording weather data-specifically; temperature, wind direction and force, rain, and snow fall. This was done four times a day: before dawn, 9:00 a.m., 3:00 p.m., and 9:00 p.m. He also recorded data regarding the flora and fauna (vegetation and animal life) both around the post and on expeditions into rarely visited regions. Many were also keen observers of the different Indian tribes. An example is a report from Fort Abercrombie in the 1850's showing how the ravages of measles, chickenpox, and alcohol had decimated the Osage Tribe native to this area.
The surgeons made the equivalent of a major's pay, assistant surgeons with five years of service made a captain's pay, and the less experienced assistant surgeons made the same as a first lieutenant. This amounted to between fifty and sixty dollars per month.
An examination was given to physicians wishing to join the Army. It covered anatomy, physiology, surgery, pharmacology, and obstetrics. Although we have rather extensive records of the diseases and afflictions that were treated here, we do not have any medical records of obstetrical deliveries. We know that many babies were delivered, but because the wives were not officially part of the army, they were not included in the official records.
Military service was quite valuable to the physician since he was exposed to many more cases of disease in a shorter length of time, than was the civilian physician of his day. Between 1842 and 1849 there were 3,034 medical cases treated at Fort Abercrombie. There were 1717 cases of malarial fever treated here during that time.
The arrival of a new medical officer usually resulted in an increase at "sick call," as the chronically ill and malingerers tried out the new doctor. The number of cases might increase by as much as 40 percent until the new medical officer had a chance to familiarize himself with his men. A young and inexperienced doctor was particularly at a disadvantage.
The hospital staff consisted of a surgeon, a steward, a wardmaster, nurses, a cook, and a matron.
The surgeon's duties included overseeing all of the hospital personnel, make morning and evening visits through the hospital, keeping the proper records such as the case book, prescription book and the diet book as well as a diary of the weather.He was also responsible for the care of the dispensary, instruments, and the proper distribution and administration of medicines prescribed. Other duties included keeping a correct account of all expenditures and filling out the monthly, quarterly, and semi-annual reports.
As the post surgeon he was allowed to select his own wardmaster, steward, nurse, and matron. The wardmaster, steward, and nurse were all soldiers selected from the companies stationed at the post.
The matron was a laundress who washed only for the hospital. She was paid $6.00 per month and received one ration of food per day.
Duties of the wardmaster included admitting patients into the hospital, recording all personal property of the patient, and taking care of the patient's clothing. Care of each person's clothing involved cleaning, numbering, and labelling with name, rank, and company. The wardmaster made sure there was enough bedding, cooking utensils, etc., in the hospital. He also took inventory of everything in use once a week and reported everything missing, worn out, or destroyed. The wardmaster was also responsible for keeping the kitchen, wards, furniture, and cooking utensils clean.
The wardmaster would call roll of the wards at sunrise and sunset and report any absentees. He was responsible for the cleanliness of the patients and attendants. He made sure every patient was washed and had his hair combed every morning. He would see to it that the patients were shaved 3 times a week when their case would permit.
Another duty of the wardmaster was to sweep and sand the floors before the morning visit of the surgeon. He would also make sure the close stools and spitboxes were clean, as well as the (bed) pans. He was to air the bedding and change the straw once a month. If a patient died, the straw would be burned and bed and bedding cleaned. An orderly often assisted the wardmaster in the performance of these duties.
The cooks (if any), nurses (soldiers from the post who had no medical training) , and attendants or orderlies were under his immediate direction and were subject to his orders.
Duties of a steward were mainly clerical. He was responsible for recording all hospital-related supplies which were received. This included hospital stores, furniture, and supplies purchased for the use of patients. He also kept a roster of the nurses and attendants and would make out returns for rations used by the hospital each month. The steward also issued the hospital stores and the supplies to the nurses and cooks, recording each item. Any supplies the wardmaster needed such as bedding, furniture, and cooking utensils were issued by the steward. He was in charge of the order and neatness of the storeroom and allowed no one to enter the room
DISEASES AND TREATMENTS
In order to understand the practice of 19th century medicine, one must understand the theory of disease that was predominant in the day.
The medical theory of the day held that poor health was caused by either too much or too little stimulation or inflammation of the nervous system. Symptoms of those diseases caused by overstimulation included high fever, strong pulse, flushed skin, rapid breathing, agitation (excceding restlessness and mental distress or shaking) and active delirium (hallucinations and illusions accompanied by extreme excitability). Treatment for these diseases included bleeding, purging, sweating, blistering, and minimal amounts of food. Sedatives might also be used to calm these excitable symptoms.
Understimulation was characterized by a weakened or depressed state. Symptoms included weakness, exhaustion, weak pulse and respirations, general wasting and quiet delirium marked by confusion of ideas and and slowness of mental action rather than by excitement. Treatments for these conditions included alcohol, drugs or stimulants, and large amounts of food.
It was also felt that good health depended upon a proper balance of nerve stimulation to muscle, blood vessels, and intestinal tract. It was then recommended that to restore this balance to an afflicted person either stimulants or sedatives could be used.
TREATMENTS
Bleeding
Doctors performed "bleeding" or "bloodletting" to remedy symptoms of most diseases. This procedure involved cutting the patient and draining "extra or unwanted" blood.
The practice of bloodletting seems barbarian to our modern mind, but was very popular among physicians of the 1860s. As much as 20 ounces of blood would be bled at a time, this sometimes repeated ten times a day, in severe cases of fever, or severe pain. Unfortunately, physicians thought the blood volume a person has was about twice what it actually is, so undoubtedly much harm was actually done as the heroic therapy was vigorously used.
Purging, Vomiting, and Sweating
The idea here was to relieve the body of harmful poisons which may be caused by inflammation. Medicine was given to induce vomiting, sweating, or purging (relieving the body of fecal material i.e. using the restroom).
Blistering
Cases of respiratory illness were treated with a procedure called "cupping" or "blistering" of the chest. Intended to relieve lung pain, the procedure required the filling of a small glass cup with alcohol which was ignited and applied directly to the skin; the resulting blister was then lanced. The idea was that the inflammation of the interior organ would then be transferred to the skin and relieved through blistering.
DISEASES
Not surprisingly, most deaths at Fort Abercrombie occurred due to illness rather than injury. Disease spread quickly through the ranks due to close living quarters, lack of sanitation, want of knowledge about contagion and infection, and inadequate diet.
We do have a list of hospital cases which occurred between 1842 and 1849. There were 3,415 cases, of these there were 1,717 of malarious fevers, 331 cases of disease of the respiratory organs, 287 cases dealing with the digestive organs. principally diarrhoea, collica, and obstipatio, with an occasional case of hepatitis and dysenteria. There were 133 cases of disease of fibrous and muscular tissues and 77 cases of diseases of the brain and nervous system, most caused by habits of intemperance. There were 45 cases of venereal disease, primarily syphilis and gonorrhea. There were also 467 surgical cases, 145 abscess and ulcers, and 322 wounds and injuries. Lastly, there were 17 deaths, only two of which were related to gunshots.
Malaria (aka intermittent fever)
Although diseases such as yellow fever, measles, chickenpox, and cholera came and went on the western frontier, malaria was the dominant health problem faced by the frontier forts. Fort Smith, Fort Gibson, and to a lesser extent Fort Leavenworth were known as pestholes - mainly due to the prevalence of malaria. Fort Abercrombie had two very bad outbreaks, one the first year of the occupation of the site - 1842 - when most of the men were quartered in tents and cabins down by mill creek, and 1845, which had an especially wet second half.
We now know that malaria is carried by mosquitoes. The theory of their day was that it was due to contact or breathing of air containing decomposing vegetative gases- thus the name malaria or "bad air". Although few men died of the disease, the recurring shaking chills and fevers could totally debilitate a dragoon or infantryman, and make him useless on campaign. The disease was treated and cured with Quinine. Quinine was used in all cases of fever including mumps, measles, typhoid, yellow and scarlet fevers, as well as chicken pox, but was only effective as a cure for malaria.
One preventative meaure to escape diseases such as malaria was open air. Open air was believed to be conducive to good health. The hospital was designed with a porch all the way around to provide convalescing patients an area to exercise and breathe in good air.
As good air was conducive to health, it was believed that many diseases such as malaria were caused by bad air. Bad air was thought to accumulate at lower areas, so high ground was sought to build the fort, and living quarters were located on the second floors of the buildings, as opposed to the basement or ground level.
Typhoid Fever
This was another common disease that was especially prevalent among soldiers during the Civil War, although not many cases were reported at Fort Abercrombie. Whereas malaria is generally characterized by intermittent fever, typhoid is marked by a continuous and sometimes rising fever. Other symptoms include fatigue, depression, a rash on the chest and abdomen, diarrhea and occasionally bloody stools. It was caused by bacteria found in fecally contaminated food and water, although at the time, doctors did not know about bacteria and thought that it was caused by noxious substances found in the air produced in crowded or close conditions.
Since fatigue and depression accompanied this disease, stimulants such as alcohol would have been used to treat the fatigue. Fever indicated inflammation and other poisons in the body so drugs to induce vomiting would have been administered and blistering agents applied. Cold compresses and sponge baths were used to reduce temperatures.
Diarrhea and Dysentary
One of the most common illnesses and one which took many lives, diarrhea and its more severe companion, dysentary were also caused by fecally contaminated water and food. Causes can generally be contributed to poor sanitation. At Fort Abercrombie, this disease existed but was not as severe as it would have been in military camps. Diarrhea symptoms included watery loose stools and low grade fever, whereas dysentary was accompanied by bloody stools and high grade fevers. Treatments often included purging, sweating , and inducing vomiting, to rid the body of unwanted material. This proved to be a huge mistake because it had the effect of further dehydrating someone who was already dehydrated.
Another similar disease reported at Fort Abercrombie was cholera, which was accompanied by severe diarrhea, vomiting and muscle cramps.
Alcoholism
Most cases dealing with the brain and nervous system resulted directly from alcoholism, a widespread problem among army troops of the 1860s. Commonly used for medicinal purposes, whiskey was also part of a soldier's ration in the early years of Fort Abercrombie, in quantities as large as three quarts per day. The extensive use of opium as a painkiller, often prescribed to be mixed with whiskey, resulted in numerous cases of addiction and withdrawal. Delirium tremens, a symptom of alcohol and drug withdrawal, were treated as a common ailment rather than an avoidable condition.
Drunkenness was a very real problem among the troops. In 1838, the spirit-ration was abolished and coffee and sugar were substituted. This was modified in 1841, however, to allow a daily extra issue of one gill of whisky per man to those engaged in constant labor of not less than ten days. Money could be substituted for the whisky ration instead, at the option of the soldier. At Fort Abercrombie a real effort was made during the 1860s to eliminate drinking. Temperance became the watchword to the disgust of some of the officers.
Delirium tremens was not an uncommon occurrence. Probably even the army did not grasp the extent of the drinking, although the surgeon at Fort Riley reported that "from the statements of convalescents and from other sources, I am satisfied that three quarts of whisky was the customary daily allowance of quite a number of the men; one quart, as the expressed it, being required 'to set them up before breakfast.' " For these habitual drinkers large quantities of opium were required when delirium tremens occurred.
Scurvy
Where supplies were limited to army rations and fresh vegetables were a rarity, scurvy was a much-dreaded disease. One of the disease's symptoms is the loss of teeth. The soldier needed his teeth to tear the paper cartridge that was used to load his weapon. Thus the prevention of scurvy was a top priority.
Doctors did not know at this time that the lack of vitamin C caused scurvy. Thus, the ingenuity of the post doctors in trying to combat and cure this devastating disease was sorely tried. When spring came to a post, wild onions, wild celery and watercress were dug from the earth and brought to the kitchens to cook for the men, usually with beneficial results.
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James V. Acker, Pres.
